Which pattern has not been attributed to the practice of stacking by race?

• A. Quarterbacks, centers, and offensive linemen being mainly white
• B. Pitchers and catchers being mainly white
• C. Running backs, wide receivers, and outfielders being mainly black
• D. Placekickers being mainly foreign

Answer: (D)

Stacking by race describes how racialized beliefs about athletes’ abilities lead teams to assign players to certain positions. Historically, white players have been overrepresented at quarterback, center, and offensive line in football because those roles were framed as requiring leadership, strategic thinking, or intellect—traits stereotypically associated with whiteness. In baseball, pitchers and catchers have been predominantly white, reflecting similar racialized notions about technical skill and game knowledge. Black players have been more concentrated in running back, wide receiver, and outfield positions, tied to stereotypes about speed and athleticism. The idea that placekickers are mainly foreign is not part of this race-based pattern, since nationality is not treated as a racial category in stacking research. Therefore, the pattern not attributed to stacking by race is placekickers being mainly foreign.